Rashid's Blog: A Place for Inquisitive Souls

During the time between 800 and 200 BCE the Sramana movement formed, from which originated Jainism and Buddhism. In the same period the first Upanishads were written. After 500 BCE, the so-called “Second urbanisation” started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain, especially the Central Ganges plain. The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of the Mauryan Empire, was a distinct cultural area, with new states arising after 500 BCE during the so-called “Second urbanisation”. It was influenced by the Vedic culture, but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region. In this region the Shramanic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.

In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many mentioned in Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 500 BCE sixteen monarchies and “republics” known as the Mahajanapadas—Kashi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Matsya (or Machcha), Shurasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja—stretched across the Indo-Gangetic Plain from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharashtra. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present across the rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other states elected their rulers. Early “republics” such as the Vajji (or Vriji) confederation centred in the city of Vaishali, existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The educated speech at that time was Sanskrit, while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time of Gautama Buddha. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha. The life of Gautama Buddha was mainly associated with these four kingdoms. This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture.

Upanishads and Shramana movements

Around 800 BCE to 400 BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads. Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas). The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.

Increasing urbanisation of India in 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or shramana movements which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals. Mahavira (c. 549–477 BCE), proponent of Jainism, and Gautama Buddha (c. 563–483 BCE), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement. Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and the concept of liberation. Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Sramana religions.
Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism. However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE), accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. Rishabhanatha was the 1st Tirthankara. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the shramana movement.

Magadha Dynasties

Magadha formed one of the sixteen Maha-Janapadas (Sanskrit: “Great Countries”) or kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively, followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas. The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism, and two of India’s greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, originated from Magadha. These empires saw advancements in ancient India’s science, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy and were considered the Indian “Golden Age”. The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.

The Hindu epic Mahabharata calls Brihadratha the first ruler of Magadha. Early sources, from the Buddhist Pali Canon, the Jain Agamas and the Hindu Puranas, mentions Magadha being ruled by the Haryanka dynasty for some 200 years, c. 600 BCE – 413 BCE. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now West Bengal. The death of King Bimbisara was at the hands of his son, Prince Ajatashatru. During this period, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in Magadha kingdom. He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in Rajgriha. The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty. The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas, Mahapadma and his eight sons.

Persians and Greeks in northwest South Asia

In 530 BCE Cyrus the Great, King of the Persian Achaemenid Empire crossed the Hindu-Kush mountains to seek tribute from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-India region (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan). By 520 BCE, during the reign of Darius I of Persia, much of the north-western subcontinent (present-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, as part of the far easternmost territories. The area remained under Persian control for two centuries. During this time India supplied mercenaries to the Persian army then fighting in Greece. Under Persian rule the famous city of Takshashila became a centre where both Vedic and Iranian learning were mingled. Persian ascendency in North-western South Asia ended with Alexander the Great’s conquest of Persia in 327 BCE.

By 326 BCE, Alexander the Great had conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire and had reached the northwest frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There he defeated King Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern-day Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab. Alexander’s march east put him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha and the Gangaridai of Bengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas River) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, and after learning about the might of the Nanda Empire, was convinced that it was better to return.

The Persian and Greek invasions had repercussions in the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent. The region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian, and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism.

Maurya Empire

The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) was the first empire to unify India into one state, and was the largest on the Indian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of the Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the Hindu Kush mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya assisted by Chanakya (Kautilya) in Magadha (in modern Bihar) when he overthrew the Nanda Dynasty. Chandragupta’s son Bindusara succeeded to the throne around 297 BCE. By the time he died in c. 272 BCE, a large part of the subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of Kalinga (around modern day Odisha) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with their trade with the south.

Bindusara was succeeded by Ashoka, whose reign lasted for around thirty seven years until his death in about 232 BCE. His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260 BCE, though successful, lead to immense loss of life and misery. This filled Ashoka with remorse and lead him to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism. The empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga to establish the Shunga Empire.

The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society. However, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government. Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof. During this period, a high quality steel called Wootz steel was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.

Sangam Period

During the Sangam period Tamil literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. During this period, three Tamil Dynasties, collectively known as the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam: Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty ruled parts of southern India.

The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars and culture of the Tamil people of this period. The scholars of the Sangam period rose from among the common people who sought the patronage of the Tamil Kings, but who mainly wrote about the common people and their concerns. Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins. They belonged to different faiths and professions like farmers, artisans, merchants, monks, priests and even princes and quite few of them were even women.

Link(s) & Source(s): ZOOMinINDIA

First Urbanisation in India

The text is based upon material found in Places and Region in Global Context: Human Geography 4th ed. by Paul Knos and Sallie Marston, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River New Jersey.

In order to better understand the world, geographers employ the following tools of spatial analysis. The first of these is location. Locations can be spatially specific (that is defined mathematically on a map by latitude and longitude) or they may be relative. The invention of the Global Positioning System (GPS) has simplified the process through which the latitude and longitude of any given point can be located. The GPS consists of twenty-one satellites and three spares that orbit the earth broadcasting time and location information. The GPS is owned and operated by the government of the United States.

Relative location refers the site and situation of a place. The site of a place can be depicted by the description of its physical characteristics. The physical characteristics of a site may include its elevation, soil, bed-rock, vegetation, and hydrology. The situation of a place refers to its location relative to everything else around it. A place might be considered well situated if it is near transportation routes, medical facilities, shopping amenities, water resources, schools, and the like (some people might not consider these attributes as positive).

The Cognitive aspects of location involve the mental images people have of a place depending on their experiences with it. Places mean different things to different people and one person’s paradise may not be held in high esteem by another. For all of us, there are places of the heart. The farm where I was raised in a rural part of the Willamette Valley of Oregon has special meaning to me, and I continue to remember it as it was when the Valley’s landscape was divided into many small independent farms and dotted with small, picturesque towns nestled securely at the base of the forested Coast Range Mountains to the west. Since the small farms and small towns have given way to agribusiness and urbanization, this landscape no longer actually exits, but it continues to live on in the hearts of those of us who once lived there, once took it for granted, and for whom it will always be home.

Distance is important. Not long ago, three older gentlemen who live in a small town in rural American met, as was their daily custom, at the only café in town for a cup of coffee and an opportunity to present their views of politics, economics, and the problems with the nation’s youth. During this particular coffee hour, one man mused that he believed the greatest invention of all time is the telephone because it has made it possible for people all over the globe to almost instantly talk to each other despite the thousands of miles that may be between them.

Whereas the example of the thermos may indeed represent a great technological breakthrough, unlike the telephone or the airplane, it has had little impact on the power of the friction of distance.

In general, the further one thing is away from another in absolute units of measure, the less influence the two have on one another. Distance however, is also a relative concept. When we travel by automobile, we may measure distance in miles or kilometers. We may also measure distance in time. Therefore, although taking the rural route between two places may in fact shorten the number of miles traveled over taking the freeway, such a route may also significantly increase the amount of time that it takes to reach the destination.

Imagine the significance of distance to every-day life in nineteenth century American in comparison to the impacts of similar differences today. When Andrew Jackson was President of the United States in the 1830s, he occasionally traveled by carriage from Washington D.C. to his home near Nashville, Tennessee. To make these trips required more than a week on the road, and of course, removal from immediate contact with the government. Currently, the President could make this same journey in a matter of several hours, or less, and would be able to maintain continuous contact with his staff throughout the journey. This is an example of time-space convergence.

Distance was at one time a great deterrent to human interaction and also a powerful buffer from threats by other nations or groups. Small towns in rural America once flourished because people could not easily travel to larger urban centers for the consumer goods they required. In the years before the automobile and good roads and highways, a trip of five or ten miles required a great deal of time and effort. Since the creation of freeways and automobiles capable of cruising along at seventy or eighty miles an hour, it is not uncommon for people to commute forty, fifty or sixty miles every day to work. In many parts of rural American, small towns began to wither and die when local farmers could easily bypass the country stores and drive to a county seat or some other larger urban center where the selection was greater and the prices were often lower.

The concept of distance decay basically deals with the observable tendency of human beings to attempt to find what they need with as little effort as possible. Therefore, the greater the friction of distance, the greater the impact of distance decay. Retail businesses give considerable attention to the significance of distance decay when settling on a location for a particular business. They want to understand whether or not a sufficient number of customers will be willing to travel to a given location in order to purchase whatever it is that they are selling. In general, distance-decay is greater for the more ubiquitous goods and services. How far would you travel for a picture hanger, a toothbrush, or a nail? Even if the price and quality of a picture hanger being sold seventy-five miles away was fantastic as opposed to the price and quality of a locally sold adequate hanger, it is unlike that you would be willing to drive seventy-five miles for this superior deal. On the other hand, if you could realize a far better deal on a new car by driving to dealership that was situated seventy-five miles away, you might be willing to make the trip.

Space, in similar fashion to distance, can be measured absolutely, or it may be thought of in relative terms. The size of a space may be fixed by defining its boundaries with lines and points. Areas, planes, and configurations are all spatial concepts.

Ideas, people, goods, diseases, weather systems, political movements, music, literature, etc. all spread from a point of origin somewhere in the world to other places. The way in which such things spread in time and space is called spatial diffusion. In order to analyze spatial interaction, it is necessary to understand the spatial diffusion process. Generally, diffusion occurs in a relatively organized fashion that can be predicted through analyses based on the fundamental principles of distance and movement. Moreover, it is possible to identify spatial tendencies in observable patterns of diffusion.

Expansion diffusion (contagion diffusion) involves the spreading of phenomena through direct contact. For example, if someone finds a way to build a more efficient mouse trap, his neighbors will probably copy it, and they in turn will pass this on to the people they meet. Another example of a recognizable pattern of diffusion is hierarchial diffusion (cascade diffusion). Phenomena spread via this pattern are diffused from one location to another without necessarily coming into contact with people or places situated in between. An example might be the spread of a political idea from one large metropolitan area to another without first passing through people and places in the countryside.

Source:

https://www.e-education.psu.edu/emsc100tsb/node/398

Our century is the Urban Century. Soon the world will become a giant urban system. Urbanization and the fast growth of cities and towns have become one of the major characteristics of the present century. Urban life is now way of life of modern man.

Humanity is now halfway through a massive multi-generational urbanization project. Over the past two hundred years, most people in the more-developed countries have moved to cities. Now, people in the global south are voting with their feet, and cities in the less-developed countries are growing so that they can accommodate rural-to-urban migrants and the natural increase in their populations. We need to work with rapidly-growing cities to better prepare them for their inevitable growth.             

Migration also brings Social Change especially in the case of rural-urban migration. Rural-urban interaction is an important aspect of urbanisation. It is very probable that urbanisation and urban growth would have their impact on rural areas and activities in rural areas would have their effect on the nearby towns and cities.

The adverse rural-to-urban flows occur in conjunction with the spillover of people, jobs, and funds from the growing core to peripheral areas (spread effects). The size and geographical extent of the beneficial and adverse forces on rural areas depend on the characteristics of the rural and urban areas and the nature of rural-urban linkages. In general, the beneficial forces are stronger for rural areas near urban cores, while the adverse flows dominate in regions more peripheral to the growing urban areas. Thus, backwash is more likely in rural areas outside of the rural-to-urban commuting zones.

This backwash effect call for some mitigation strategies. The planner must prepare for urban expansion.

Preparing for urban expansion means embracing the idea of “Making Room” for population growth by preparing cities for both urban expansion and densification. Urban Expansion eats up green forest land.Orderly urban expansion takes place when governments acquire public lands to lay out the periphery of the city in advance of urban development, providing an organized framework for growth. Effective densification takes place when municipal governments allow for redevelopment and infill of existing areas by implementing supportive regulations. When cities are unable to guide expansion or densify—whether due to bureaucratic ineptitude, lack of resources, or political resistance—the city continues to grow, but in a chaotic way that is less inclusive, less productive and less sustainable. Often the city grows layer by layer.

Marron Institute of Urban Management, NYU is doing a good work in this field. I respect their work.

Source(s):

Marron Institute of Urban Management, NYU