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Migration related to natural disasters and agriculture isn’t new. For example, at least 500,000 people immigrated to the United States from Ireland during the Irish Potato Famine. Yet as our climate changes, more people will be forced to leave their homes in the face of environmental events like rising sea levels, extreme heat, fires, flooding, and an increase in the strength of storms like hurricanes. According to United Nations International Organization for Migration (IOM), estimates range from 25 million to a billion people who could be displaced by 2050 as the result of climate change.

Internal migration can be devastating. Internally displaced people face many of the same problems as those who have fled to another country, including loss of housing, access to work, education, healthcare, social life, and security. 

But while most migrants would rather avoid the legal and logistical nightmare of crossing national borders. A report showed that many migrants will first flock to cities within their country as climate change impacts rural life. But migrants will start to leave these cities as they become overcrowded, eventually crossing borders. In fact, the same New York Times Magazine article noted that this is already happening in places like Guatemala, where drought and unpredictable weather patterns are pushing people out of farming communities. 

People who leave their home countries due to climate impacts face the same problems and obstacles as any migrant. The jobs that many do find are often menial and low-paying — even those who were skilled workers like engineers and teachers likely won’t find the same position open to them after migrating. Most migrants who are undocumented also run the constant risk of deportation, although a January UN decision ruled that migrants cannot be sent home if a climate-related events puts them in immediate danger.

Even when a migrant is not in “immediate danger,” they may feel unsafe returning home, such as in cases of agricultural collapse, say experts. This has led many to argue for a category of “climate refugees,” although no legal status of the kind exists, said Marium Traore Chazanoel, a specialist on migration, the environment, and climate change at the IOM. The official definition of a refugee under international law is very narrow — refugees must be fleeing their home country and be unable to return due to “race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion,” according to the United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees (UNHCR) 1951 Refugee Convention. Reasons related to climate do not fall into this category. 

“When the grass is not enough, movement increases. In the spring, many migrants moved from the south to the north. There is no other way to overcome climate change. All the people wish to survive with their animals and come to a place where they can fatten their livestock,” said Mr. Chinbat, a herder of Sergelen soum in Mongolia, where the adverse effects of climate change are impacting the migration of herders.

Experts believe a legal definition like “climate refugee” would offer climate migrants the same protections that current refugees are afforded. For instance, they would be able to apply for asylum and would not be sent back to their home country, gain some freedom to choose where they live within a country. Asylum seekers are also detained rather than sent back to their home country while they seek asylum. Asylum status also applies to a person’s family, making it easier for all family members to successfully immigrate to a new country. 

The UNHCR and many other agencies and researchers acknowledge that those fleeing climate impacts often face the same issues when returning home. For instance, those who once relied on farming may not longer be able to consistently grow enough crops due to heat, drought, and unpredictable weather.

Source(s):

Mashable

Calcutta , now Kolkata, was established in 1960 born out of a factory built by the East India Company. In 1927, a municipal corporation for Calcutta, headed by a Mayor was established. Between 1774 and 1911, it was officially the capital of British Empire in India. In the later half of the nineteenth century, a filtered water supply, underground drainage, a network of roads, and other improvements were planned and built. Up to independence in 1947, Calcutta was the premier industrial centre and largest port in India. Following independence and the loss of the hinterland that had provided raw materials and workers to its prominent manufacturing industries, Calcutta’s relative importance as an industrial base declined.The population of Calcutta Metropolitan District (CMD) was calculated to be more than 10 million in 1981; that of the Calcutta Metropolitan Corporation (CMC0 area was 3.3 million. At that time, the total urban population of India was approximately 160 million, thus some 6% of urban dwellers in India were resident of CMC.

Huge Population

Kolkata is slowest growing metropolis in India, yet it continues to add over 2,00,000 persons to its population in spite of continuing deficiencies in environment. About 7.8 million people live on the east bank of Hooghly river. This includes the 3.3 million people living in the CMC administrative area. The west bank population is about 2.2 million and is concentrated mainly in the Howrah Municipal Corporation (HMC) and Bally municipality opposite the CMC.

Kolkata Contains almost 15 million people. It is one of India’s largest and most rapidly growing cities.The Hooghly River is near Kolkata, rather it is a life line to the city. Kolkata , with time has grown into a giant urban system and many problems crept up with time.

The Unplanned Development of Shanty Towns

Most people live in bustees (shanty towns).These bustees contain more than 4 million people.Bustees are unplanned, homes are packed closely together. Makeshift homes are made of wood, straw or even fattened metal boxes or barrels.Bustee dwellers are squatters – they do not own the land that their homes are built on.

Water Supply

Most ‘pavement people’ haven no clean water. Kolkatais strugling with water supply.

Over time the city population has increased manifolds. One of the direct impact of this rapid population growth is the increase in water demand of the city. Most of the water distributed within the city is extracted from Hooghly river. The city is likely to face a water crisis problem in future. Adding to this is the problem of lowering of groundwater table at alarming rate and presence of contaminants in groundwater in some areas. .

Sanitation Facilities:

Open sewer run through the city, and this endangers people’s health.

According to a survey, Kolkata, a major tourist magnet, has been ranked worst in terms of sanitation facilities for tourists, according to a survey.About 74 per cent of the total respondents placed Kolkata on the top of the list of tourist locations which require upgrading of sanitary restroom facilities followed by Mumbai with 72 per cent.

Primary Education

Bustee schools are poorly built, badly equipped and very short of money. Most children do not attend school. It is a warning sign for future. A proper infrastructure push is needed.

Various elements impose high costs of acquiring education. Income acts as a major deterrent among many families and has a direct negative impact on the enrolments. Girl’s enrolment is very low due to various factors. Increasing the amount of budgetary allocations on primary education is very important .

Public Transport:Remodelling is Needed

It is generally very poor. Buses are old and overcrowded. It is overburdened.The remodeling of the existing transport links and laying down of the new ones will facilitate the movement of bulky goods like jute, tea, coal and other minerals along with the fish. The reviving of water transport may release the extra burden on railways and roads. The swampy chunks in the south east and south west Rarh lack adequate road and railway facilities. The laying down of additional lines will help improving the conditions and in developing agro-industries there. The seasonal roads in Duar hamper the movement of tea. The modernization and through connection will maintain regular flow of tea. Being a perishable item, tea requires quick transit and adequate warehousing.

General Infrastrucure

A truly holistic approach to infrastructure requires stepping away from a silo/sector-based approach and understanding that infrastructure is made up of not just physical things or assets, but consists of three major parts: assets, knowledge, and institutions.

Source(s):

https://www.cram.com/flashcards/urban-problems-in-kolkata-4645449

Kolkata: Some History

Some Thoughts on Urban Planning in Kolkata

Key Drivers of Infrastructure in Cities

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