Several key factors determine the impact of housing on well-being, spanning the physical, economic, social, and environmental dimensions of both housing units and neighborhoods.​

Prime Impacts

Biological

• Indoor Biological Contaminants: Poor housing can lead to mold, mildew, dust mites, and bacteria, worsening indoor air quality and affecting respiratory health, especially in vulnerable groups.
• Allergens and Air Quality: Damp homes produce allergens that can worsen respiratory issues. Reducing mold can significantly improve symptoms in children.
• Physiological Stress: Substandard housing causes chronic stress responses like elevated cortisol and immune suppression, impacting overall health and well-being.
• Epigenetic Changes: Poor housing may lead to changes in gene activity that affect mental health, particularly during critical developmental periods.
• Toxic Exposure: Exposure to lead, asbestos, and other toxins in poor housing can cause severe health issues, especially in children.

Physical

• Structural Integrity: Poorly constructed or maintained homes increase risks for injury (falls, burns, cuts) and exposures to hazardous materials such as lead or asbestos.​
• Indoor Air Quality: Mold, dampness, dust mites, and poor ventilation contribute to respiratory diseases (asthma, allergies), cardiovascular conditions, and other chronic illnesses.​
• Temperature Control(Thermal Comfort): Inadequate heating or insulation leads to exposure to cold, increasing rates of cardiovascular disease, hypothermia, and respiratory infections; equally, excessive indoor heat can cause heat stroke or dehydration.​
• Sanitation and Hygiene: Access to clean water, functioning toilets, and waste disposal reduces risks of waterborne diseases and skin infections. Lack of these essentials increases infectious disease burden.​
• Crowding and Space: Overcrowding leads to higher rates of infectious disease transmission, psychological stress, and sleep disturbances due to lack of privacy and noise.​
• Environmental Hazards: Exposure to pests, toxic chemicals, vector-borne disease risks, noise, and unsafe surroundings negatively affect health and safety, especially in poorly regulated or informal housing.​
• Neighborhood Physical Environment: Streets, green spaces, public lighting, transport access, and environmental pollution around the home further influence physical and psychological well-being.​

Physical improvements in housing (better insulation, ventilation, eliminating hazards, providing basic amenities) are strongly linked to measurable gains in physical health, reduced illness, and increased overall well-being, particularly in disadvantaged populations.​

Chemical

• Indoor Pollutants: Common chemicals like formaldehyde, VOCs, and carbon monoxide from building materials and cleaning products can harm health.
• Lead Exposure: Found in old paint and plumbing, lead is toxic, especially for children, causing developmental problems.
• Asbestos: Fibers in older materials can lead to serious lung diseases when inhaled over time.
• Pesticides and Household Chemicals: Improper use of cleaning agents and pesticides can cause respiratory issues and poisoning.
• Radon Gas: This gas can build up in homes and is a risk factor for lung cancer.
• Water Contaminants: Contaminated water with heavy metals and chemicals can lead to various health issues.

• Air pollution: Poor ventilation and emissions from materials increase respiratory risks.
• Dampness and mould: Faulty or damp homes foster mould growth, leading to allergies and respiratory issues.
• Pests and vectors: Insects and rodents can transmit diseases and trigger allergies, especially in poor housing.
• Chemical hazards: Radon, asbestos, and other compounds increase risks for cancer and neurological issues.

Environmental

Environmental factors in housing encompass both the immediate indoor environment and broader neighborhood surroundings, shaping health and well-being through various exposures and structural determinants.​

Indoor Environmental Factors

• Air pollution: Poor ventilation, indoor cooking or heating with biomass or coal, and emissions from building materials lead to household air pollution, increasing respiratory and cardiovascular risks.​
• Dampness and mold: Structurally faulty, poorly insulated, or damp homes foster mold and bacterial growth, contributing to allergic reactions and chronic respiratory conditions.​
• Pests and vectors: Infestations by insects and rodents can transmit communicable diseases and trigger allergies or asthma, especially in substandard housing.​
• Chemical hazards: Radon, asbestos, lead, and volatile organic compounds from building materials increase risks for cancer, neurological issues, and developmental disorders.​

Outdoor and Neighborhood Factors

• Noise, air, and water pollution: Outdoor environmental quality—including traffic noise, poor air or water, and hazardous waste—affects both physical and mental health for residents.​
• Climate exposures: Poor housing design can worsen exposure to heat, cold, flooding, and extreme weather, all linked to cardiovascular, respiratory, and injury risks.​
• Green space and nature: Access to parks, greenery, and outdoor recreation improves cardiovascular health, mood, and resilience against stress.​
• Neighborhood safety and cohesion: High crime, poor lighting, and lack of communal space undermine social support and sense of security, negatively affecting mental well-being.​

Health Consequences

These environmental risks are associated with:

• Airborne and vector-borne diseases (TB, malaria, leishmaniasis)
• Waterborne infections
• Allergies and asthma
• Noncommunicable diseases (stroke, heart failure)
• Cancer and neurological disorders
• Domestic injuries and mental health stressors​

Environmental improvements in housing—including sustainable design, proper siting, better ventilation, toxin-free materials, access to nature, and safer neighborhoods—are essential to limiting disease and improving well-being.

Social

Social factors in housing play a crucial role in shaping well-being by influencing sense of community, access to support, equity, safety, and opportunity.​

Major Social Factors and Their Effects

• Social Cohesion and Community: High levels of trust, shared norms, mutual support, and neighborly interactions foster better mental health and reduce loneliness, especially for vulnerable populations.​
• Housing Stability and Security: Secure, stable housing reduces anxiety, improves mental health, and enables individuals and families to build strong social networks. Housing instability (frequent moves, evictions, homelessness) disrupts community ties and contributes to psychological distress and poorer health.​
• Neighborhood Safety and Inclusion: Safe, inclusive neighborhoods with low crime rates support community participation, belonging, and positive health behaviors. Discrimination and housing-based exclusion (redlining, gentrification, rental bias) undermine community cohesion and lead to cumulative health disadvantages for marginalized groups.​
• Access to Services and Amenities: Proximity to schools, healthcare, recreation, and public spaces strengthens social networks and supports healthy development for children and adults.​
• Economic and Educational Opportunity: Affordable housing allows families to allocate resources toward education, healthcare, and child development, directly improving well-being and future prospects.​

Equity and Structural Factors

Historical and structural discrimination in housing has led to persistent social inequalities, affecting generations and disproportionately impacting marginalized communities. Social determinants such as race, income, and policy shape access to healthy housing environments.​

Overall, strong social environments in housing—marked by stability, cohesion, inclusion, and opportunity—directly promote individual and collective well-being.​

Related

The “4 C’s” of Healthy Housing

According to conceptual models, housing disparities and health outcomes are largely determined by the “4 C’s”:

• Cost (affordability)
• Conditions (quality)
• Consistency (stability)
• Context (neighborhood opportunity).​

All these factors interconnect, amplifying or mitigating health and well-being outcomes depending on broader structural inequalities and individual circumstances.​